Field Research Strategies in Geography Form 5 Notes PDF Download
Definition of research
Refer to scientific and systematic research for a particular information/data on specific problem facts or ideas on both social and natural science
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Or
Is the science of collecting, observing, selecting, evaluating and presenting (reporting) of particular information
Or
Is the care full and systematic investigation of new fact/ideas of any information. Is the movement from unknown to known.
Geographical field research
Is the process of seeking, observing, selecting, investigating or experimenting a problem of geographical nature on a field
Is the scientific study of certain geographical phenomena.
Types of Research
1. Applied Research/action research
2. Basic research or /pure or /fundamental
3. Quantitative research
4. Qualitative research/descriptive research
5. Analytical research
6. Conceptual research
7. Empirical research
8. Description research
Note
Types of research according to the purpose or aim of research are Applied Research/action research and Basic research or /pure or /fundamental.Type of research according to the type or nature of data are Quantitative research and Qualitative research/descriptive research.
1. Applied research;-
This is the type of research that aimed at finding the solution of immediate problem that face the society industry or business. The central aim at applied research is to discover solution to some particular pressing problems
It is a research that is of direct and immediate relevance to decision maker address problems that seem to be as important and need to be solved for the benefit of the people concerned.
2. Fundamental/pure/basic research
It mainly concern with scientific discovery. It is a type of research carried out for the sake of generating knowledge. It is mainly concerned with generating and formulation of theories and therefore it does not intend to solve any immediate problem
3. Quantitative research
This is the information or data, which explain distribution of phenomena in quantity form. It is mainly deals with quantitative values(It deals with numerical form).
4. Qualitative research
It is based on the one which explains the data in descriptive manner. It mainly deals with quality than quantity sometimes known as descriptive research.
This type of research includes surveys and facts finding through inquiries of different kind. The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of affair as it exist at present
5. Analytical research
This is the type at research which use facts or information already available and analyze them to make a critical evaluation of material.
This kind of research consists of system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. The study in this research aims at testing hypothesis, specifying and interpreting relationships
6. Conceptual research
Is the type of research that related with abstract ideas or theory
It is most applicable on invisible world
Concern with phenomena that can not be seen, touched, heard e.g moral, behavior, traditional believes
7. Empirical research
Is the type of research that depends on the experience or it is data based and capable at be verified by observation, measurement and experiment
It is based on the world appearance/visible world
Characteristics of research
1. Goal oriented
2. Systematic
3. Logical
4. Imperial
5. Inquisitive
6. Selective
7. Objective
8. Replicable
1. Goal oriented
Purposeful for the solving of particular problem e.g. Doctor with patient
2. Systematic
It is the scientific in nature based of regular plan, procedure, rules, fixed method of conducting it. It have structure with specific stapes to be taken in sequence for instance
Collection
Analyze
Interpretation
3. Logical
Based on premises (incidences) and conclusion. It is guided by the rules of logical reason and logical process, which are of great values in carrying out research
In fact logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making
4. Empirical
It means the conduction or bear evidences of factual that can be verified. Without evidence conclusion can not be made and if made it will be just an opinion
5. Inquisitive:
Means it is investigative in nature based on how and why.
6. Selective
A researcher normally focuses on only one problem ( phenomena) rather than general or several research problem ( specification)
7. Objectivity
A researcher must be impartial standing point and been free from a personal interest, influence in conducting research ( avoiding personal interest)
8. Replicable
To allow the research finding to be verified by replicating the study so as to make strong base for decision- making
OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH
The main purpose of research is to discover answers to different questions through application of scientific procedure, though each research study has its own specific purpose. The general objective are
1. To develop theories, principles to explain various issues or matters
2. To gain new knowledge to be added to the existing one
3. To solve different social, political and economic problems
4. To fill gaps develop or raised by other researchers
5. To discover answers to different disturbing questions
6. To evaluate success or failure of different projects as the case of environmental project etc
7. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
8. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, groups or situation. This is basically a description research
9. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new sight into it
10. To test or approve hypothesis of causal relationship between phenomena(variables)
Advantage/strength/ importance/usefulness/merits of field research
1. To look for accurate solution to existing problems
2. To find answers to existing question e.g what is the reason for failure at form IV’s
3. It help to generate new ideas to verify the existing ones
4. Research helps the consumers of it(e.g policy makers) to evaluate themselves and take rational decision
5. It enable society to make intelligent decision concerning problems facing them in particular life at different times
6. The methodology of research conduction is helpful in various fields such as government and community social works and business administrative at large
7. It is useful to one who is preparing for a carrier or further studies
Disadvantage/weakness/limitation/demerits of fields research
1. A researcher is to have studied a wide a range of literature and technique before conducting a research.This means it needs skilled people
2. In concentrating on a single problem a researcher may loose sight on broad issues
3. Research is expensive, a lot of money is needed to make a research work. Eg money for food, shelter, accommodation, stationary etc
4. Large amount of data may appear unnecessary and even confusion if the researcher is not scientifically inclined
5. Time consuming .
QUALITIES OR CRITERIA OF A GOOD SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Research is a scientific process carried out systematically to acquire knowledge of the universe or population through stated objectives, whatever may be the type of research work and studies, one thing is that they all meet common grounds of scientific method employed by them.
Research should not be based on Arbitrary methods ( lack of scientific attitude in that, illogical, subjective, uninformed e.t.c )
Scientific research satisfies the following criteria or qualities:-
1. Research must be cumulative
Research is built over what has already been done before on the problem under investigation where new knowledge is discovered and added to the existing one
2. Research must be cyclic
This is to say research go through various stages include
i. Identification of problem
ii. Statement of the problem
iii. Formulation of hypothesis
iv. Collecting data
v. Organization and tabulation of data
vi. Data analysis and interpretation
vii. Testing the hypothesis
viii. Reporting writing
ix. Recommendation and conclusion
3. Research must be theoretical
The theory provides a conceptual model for research and in turn research contribute to theory development e.g. I.Q affects performance. In this case conclusion should be confined to those issues for which the data provide an adequate basis
4. It must define important terms/concepts.
The purpose of research should be clearly defined and common concepts used in research should be clearly defined
5. Research should be procedural (objectivity)
Research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible
6. Good research must be systematic
This means research is structured with specific steps to be taken in specific steps to be taken in specific sequence in accordance with the well- defined set of rule systematic characteristic help to reject the use of guessing and intuition
7. A good research should be logical.
This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and logical process, which are of great value in carrying out research
8. Goal research must be replicable.
This characteristics allows a research results to be verified by replicating the study and there by building a sound for decision. This is to say methods and procedures used are to be described carefully and clearly so that someone else can be able to reproduce it and use its design in a study.
9. Goal research should be empirical
This implies research is related basically to one or more aspects of the real situation and deals with concrete data which base on observable evidence and research conclusion is researched from the collected data
Common problem encountered in the field /problems hindering conduct at research
1. Transportation problem : eg roads, ( infrastructure to arrive at the study area)
2. Financial constrain (costs):High cost, involve in hiring a vehicle. The enumerator or researcher have to work long distance from one responder to the next etc stationery, accommodation
3. Language barrier: Language can be as constraint during the field work when some respondent may sometimes not understand the research language hence translation of the instrument into local language.
4. Un conducive weather condition (climate factor) eg rainfall or in area like central Tanzania temperature sometimes reaches 340c it become difficult to collect data in such condition
5. Remoteness/inaccessibility of the research site
6. Lack of access of strictly confidential information
PLANNING OF FIELD RESEARCH (ORGANIZATION)
Involve the following
1. Choice of a research site
This is the place where research will be conducted or taken depending on the nature/purpose of research and this site should be
a. Near
b. Accessibility
c. Social service must be available
2. Pre- visit or reconnaissance of a research site (To visit before involve on research)
a) This help in introducing the researcher to the authorities and respondents, also help researcher to be familiar with a place
b) Help a researcher to know the equipment needed
c) Help to identity the problem which a researcher may encounter during study
d) Help to design the working schedule
e) Help the researcher to estimate the cost of study
3. Choice of research tools /methods This include eg
a) Questionnaire
b) Interview
b) Checklist group
4. The researcher welfare consideration
5. Organization of a working schedule.
This is a planning of activities to take place at a specific time during research activity
Insure transport and accommodation
Assurance of equipment that should be used in the site
6. Drafting a research ( research proposal) it is the systematic plan that bring, together the organized primarily plan that will be needed to accomplish the research process
RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process is a series at activities that are to be followed over time when caring out a research. It consist at steps necessary to effective carry out research and the desired sequencing at these steps
What is to note is that there is no precise number of stage agreed by different school at thought
MAJOR STAGES/STEPS OF THE FIELD RESEARCH
Identification- of the problem
Literature review
Formation of hypothesis
Data collection
Data analysis
Data recording, presentation and interpretation
Testing hypothesis
Recommendation and conclusion
1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
This is the first step in research process, it involves knowing the problem, finding the source of the problem.
Research problem refer to some difficulty which a researcher experience in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and obtain a solution for the same
Any thing that a person finds unsatisfactory, a difficulty of some sort, a state of affair that needs to be changed, anything that is not working as well
Personnel experience through living in particular area
Sources of research problem
i. Personal experience through living in particular area
ii. Review of literature
iii. Current social issue
iv. Deduction from theories
v. Practical situation ( land conflict)
Characteristics of research problem
i. Should be testable
ii. Should be new and not been done before
iii. Should be clear and not vague
iv. Should be educative
v. Should be a familiar or common problem
vi. Should be affordable interm at cost
vii. Should be interested
viii. Should be researchable
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
It is a stage involving intensive ready of many relevant literature on the particular problem so as to gain or expand knowledge on the problem to be tackled. Such literature sources includes books, journal’s, newspapers, magazine,articles, letters, research reports (dissertation for academic purpose or thesis ) and other relevant materials etc
“why literature ….” Reasons for reviewing literature
i. To collect more information/data
ii. To identify theories that will be tested using the data ( to put the study into perception i.e. Into theory
iii. To avoid unnecessary repetition of works which have already been done by other researchers. To avoid plagiarism ( an act of using someone’s ideas) works and pretending that they are yours)
iv. To select appropriate research design
v. To enable the researcher to formulate hypothesis
Guideline in making a literature review
i. Have a plan in advance
ii. Start with recent document /finds
iii. Read in depth in order to determine the relevant feature at your study
iv. Acknowledge authors of the material
v. Avoid reproducing the same material
Therefore Literature review defined as the process of identifying, locating, evaluating, summarizing and incorporating in the study document having materials which are related to the problem under investigation
3. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS/RESEARCH QUESTION
Hypothesis is the researcher own speculation about the problem in question. It is a tentative answer to the problem in question or intelligent guess for the answer of the problem to be researched
Therefore it is a theory or statement of fact which has not get been proved
-The hypothesis must cover the cause of the problem, effect of the problem, possible solution and recommendation
-Hypothesis involving testing of variables and experimentation process.
There are two types of Hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis
Is the one stated negatively showing no relationship between two variable Eg. There is no relationship between soil erosion and farming along Uluguru mountain
2. Alternative/substantive hypothesis
It is the one stated positively showing that there is relationship between two variables eg. There is relationship between soil erosion and farming along Uluguru Mountain
Researcher may use either of the two whenever formatting hypothesis for a study
Characterizes of hypothesis
i. It has an element of comparison, where by two or three terms are compared
ii. It leaves room for “yes’ or “no”
iii. It must be related to the objective of study
iv. The quantities words used are easily measurable e.g more,most, majority etc
v. An hypothesis is not obvious
Function of hypothesis
i. Enables to relate theories into observation and observation into theories
ii. Presents a suggested solution to the problem
iii. Present a simple form of a statement of researcher expectations
iv. Give researcher direction to the collection and interpretation of data
v. Provide a framework for reporting conclusion of ones study
vi. Refine the research problems
Criteria for a good hypothesis
i. Should be relevant ( relevance) should reflect the topic or problem of study
ii. Should be testable ( testability) there must be some way of acquiring evidence that would confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis
iii. Should be compatible ( compatibility) should fit well with what we already believe about natural order of things i.e consist ant to statement of fact, theories or laws
iv. Should be simple, clear, precise ( simplicity)
v. Should easily predict the consequences/ out come and be applicable to many other types of circumstance ( predictive power)
vi. Should be specific and limited in scope
Importance of hypothesis
i. It define which facts are relevant and which one are not
ii. It indicate the type of data required
iii. The role at hypothesis is to help researcher by limiting area of research
iv. It determines the most appropriate technique of data analysis
v. It contributes to theory development
Research tool or equipments
i. Note book
ii. Camera
iii. Tape recorder
iv. Computer
v. Check list
vi. Questioner
vii. Ruler
4. DATA COLLECTION
Data is the body of information presented in numerical form. Can be treated either qualitatively or quantitatively
At this stage the researcher go to the field and collect data physically
There are two basic sources or types of data
a) Secondary data
These are the data collected by the researcher from existing information such as book, magazine, newspaper, research reports, TV, Radio, photograph, Government reports, census etc
-Is the information obtained from other people’s findings, past publications and official records
b) Primary data
These are original or firsthand information collected directly by a researcher in the field. This data is collected through interview, questionnaire, observation and FGD(Focus Group Discussion) also key informative.
Ways of collecting primary data/method of data collection
1. INTERVIEW METHOD TECHNIQUE
It is a direct discussion between the researcher and the respondent. This method involves verbal interaction between an interviewer and interviewee either face to face conversation or over telephone. Under this, there’s presentation of oral verbal stimuli and reply in term of oral- verbal responses
Types of interview
a) Structure (formal) interview
In this kind of interview question are prior – prepared and the same question are asked to all the respondents or interviewee.
b) Unstructured (informal)
A researcher here does not have prior prepared questions but he/she has some topic to cover. Respondent are not asked the same questions and they can answer in whatever the way
In interview situation what to consider
i. The researcher must understand respondents own situation
ii. There researcher must grasp the totality of respondent’s situation
iii. There must be a sense of closeness between researcher and respondent
iv. Some topic which are very sensitive to react on e.g political issues or social affair, researcher must avoid sensitive/irritative questions.The interview must take place between two parties only. There must not be a third party or listener as respondent will not be free to give the right answer
v. There must be flexibility i.e. A researcher must be able to put him/herself in the situation of respondent
vi. Time also must be considered. It is better be working hours Or whatever time found favourable.
Advantage of interview method
1. It is includes or suitable for both literacy and illiteracy respondents making it to have wide coverage. People who can not read or write are accommodated in the sample.
2. They are flexible. Unlike to questioner which can not change within a time but in interview can change
3. The researcher can give clarification when a question is not well understood. It ensure the researcher whether the respondent understood the question or not
4. Direct contact with the respondent enables the researcher to estimate the accuracy of the responses
5. A researcher can get as many answer as possible due to freeness of the respondent.
6. It can be used to collect data on sudden, issues such as diseases outbreak or an accident. Thus it is very useful to journalist
7. There is high rate of responses as compared to questionnaire method. Due to the fact, interviewers and interviewee have direct contact
Disadvantage of interview
1. It is very expensive method especially when large and widely spread geographical sampled is taken
2. Language barrier is a most likely problem that can hinder smooth running of the interview. This results into the need to an interpreter which increase costs
3. Time consuming as the researcher can only talk to one respondent at a time
4. Interview are not effective for researches and respondents with physical disabilities eg dumb and deaf persons
5. Prove to subjectivity there is possibility of the bias of interviewer and that of interviewer
6. It is difficult to conduct where population is scattered as there is always lack of accessibility to respondent. Etc
2. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
Questionnaire method uses questions inorder together information. Questionnaire:
Refer to the prepared written questions which are handled or given to the respondents on hand, posted or mailed to be answered so as to provide relevant information for a particular problem of research. This type of research instrument is suitable in gathering information over a large sample or geographical area
There are two types of questionnaire
a) Closed –ended /rigid/structured questioner
This refer to question which are accompanied by a list of possible alternative from which the respondents select the appropriate answer
E.g. The answer may be limited to “YES’ or “NO’ True- false etc The reason for soil erosion in your area is because of:
i. Farming
ii. Limbering cutting trees
iii. Nature factor
b) Open – ended/unstructured question (guide/direct)
these also known as lead question. These are types of question that allow the respondents to answers them as seem appropriate
Here questions are asked and space is provided for respondents to fill in using their own words
the respondents are given complete freedom of expressing their view
Advantages of questionnaire
1. It save time since several questionnaires may be distributed to many respondents and being filled at the same time
2. It is free from the bias of interviewer
3. It is less expensive even for respondents scattered over a wider geographical area because can be posted
4. Easy to analyze as they give minimum explanation
5. The researcher is able to win the respondent’s trust or any fears that respondents might have
6. Provide enough chance for the respondents to think carefully and give the best answers
7. Adequate and large quantity of information can be gathered
Disadvantage of questionnaire
1. Questionnaire may not be effective when the respondent are illiterate or language barriers
2. There is no opportunity to ask for further information or clarification of some misunderstanding
3. Mailed questionnaires may be lost once they are sent
4. No clean reasons can be given for incomplete responses
5. Accuracy of answers is not assured since the respondent may cheat as the researcher has no direct content
6. Response rate can be quite low
3. Observation method
It is a type of research data collection method under which the information is sought by looking at a phenomena without asking the respondent
or
-Is the systematic method of data collection which involves the use of eyes than voice and ears. Observation is a carefully and accurate watching and recording of the events as they occur in their natural setting. The researcher go to the field with idea of what he/she is going to observe and he/she expect to see everything carefully and closely
-The research should records what he/she sees not what he/she hears
Kind/type of observation method
a) Participant observation method
Researcher becomes part and parcel of people under observation
-this is the one where researcher joins in the daily life of a group or organization he/she is studying for a period of time e.g. 1-3 months, a year depending on what he/she is studying
b) Non- participant observation
Researcher observes without participating in the life of the observed. Here researcher observes actions, behavior and activities of the group he/she is studying without participation in the daily life of the people he/she is studying
Advantages of observation methods
i. If observation done accurately, subjectivity is eliminated because it
ii. doesn’t involve the respondent
iii. It overcome the language barrier
iv. The method is independent of the respondent’s wiliness to respond
v. The method allows full participation of the researcher in the field research process
vi. Help in developing observation skill to researcher
vii. It is suitable for both literate and illiterate groups
viii. Only the relevant data is collected
Disadvantages of observation
i. The researcher is involved in extensive traveling making the exercise tiresome and time consuming
ii. It is an expensive method
iii. It may not be possible to collect data of past activities
iv. Visual impairment may limit effectiveness of this method ( blindness)
v. When people know that they are studied they use to change their behavior
4. Focus group discussion ( FGD)
It is an intensive free discussion where qualitative data on how people in a group or community think about a given situation issue or problem are collected
The size of the group is small ranging between five and ten people but preferably 6-8 people who share certain characteristics which are relevant to the study
FGD is a special type of group in term of the propose size, composition and procedures conducting a carefully planned and design as discussion in order to obtain information on the participants beliefs and perception.
FGD should be composed of homogeneous members of the target population eg similar age, Education level, profession and gender
Researcher should have specific topic to be discussed and a recording list of the discussion should be made.
In FGD researcher becomes facilitator and therefore FGD require good planning and training of group moderator
FGD planning
Focus group discussion consist of
Facilitator: who is also a researcher ( moderator)
Recorder: Is an assistant of the facilitator taking notes
Discussion guide: sub topic
Report establishment: involving and making good relationship with people
Participants: the respondents.
Participant selection: formation of homogeneous based on various Criteria
Discussion Procedure
i. Facilitator expressing the general purpose of the discussion
ii. Member introducing themselves in order to obtain preliminary information about the group
iii. Facilitator allow a free discussion for every individual
iv. Facilitation may ask permission to record some important information
v. Recorder going on taking notes while observing participant
Before the end of the free discussion the facilitator should be making sure that all discussion guide are adequately tackled and all important data are obtained
Advantage of FGD
i. The method is less expensive
ii. Save time because take about 45 minutes
iii. It is the best method for identifying and exploring belief ideas or opinions in a community.
iv. Stimulates free discussion where people can talk and express their view clearly and freely (because they feel sense of involvement In the discussion)
v. FGD can produce a lot of information quickly
vii. Respondents acquire speaking, listening and coordinating skill
viii. Researcher became active person in the discussion compare to questionnaire or observation
ix. It’s good for generating hypothesis for larger studies
Disadvantages of FGD
i. Only few respondent may be active in discussion and dominate others.
ii. This method is not representative since very small sample size of the population is involved
iii. It’s mostly intended to generate views and not getting correct answers
iv. Since it is a surprise, members may not be in a good position to participate in discussion and give their contributions.
v. The researcher has less control over the flow of discussion and the results are hard to analyze.
vi. Selection of the group may involve subjectivity and biasness
5. Measuring method
It is a method which uses height, length ( distance) weight method and angle measuring devices in field data collection. This method is accurate and quick. Measurement of scale include, ordinal, nominal, interval and rations.
Rapid appraisal method: This is another kind of discussion where the researcher invited mass conduct of discussion or meeting
5. DATA ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS
Under this stage the data collected are edited and analyzed to identify relevant and irrelevant data. Data organization means putting the data into some systematic form
Data analysis refers to the process to examining the coded data critically and making inferences
Data are tabulated and various satisfied measures such as measure of central tendency are assessed
The Data are stored by means of paper storage or electronic storage where statistical software package such as word processor, spread sheet or database may be asked
Under this stage of field research the raw data collected are edited, coded, recorded and analyzed
6. DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
Data edited, coded, recorded and analyzed in the previous stage are now presented in various statistical form such as graphs, maps and charts. Also photograph field sketching, tabulation and tallying may be used
Therefore data presentation refers to the way of arranging data to make it clearly understood.
Interpretation is the done using various criteria suitable or reflecting on the problem of the research and the formulated hypothesis of the research
7. TESTING HYPOTHESIS
The original hypothesis is then tested against the research results and if the fact/data support the hypothesis generalization may be made. If the hypothesis appears wrong the researcher goes back to the field and start afresh and ways of collecting data must be changed
8. RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
Research gives/his/her opinion and then gives conclusion of all that he has observed
SAMPLING IN FIELD RESEARCH
Sample
This is a part of population, it is a set of selected elements from a population for study. It must be selected elements from a population for study. It must be selected according to principles of sampling and this will make it move representative of total population
Sampling
Is the process of selecting small number of people or objects or units(sample) to represent the entire population, Example to checking the soil type it may be taken small amount of soil the amount taken is said to be sample
Population or universe
Is the group of individuals ,items, objects from which samples taken for a particular study It is the targeted group
Element
These include individual persons, objects or units about which information is collected
Sample size
This refers to the total number of item or individual to be selected from the population to constitute a sample. The larger the sample size the lower the likely error in generalization to the population. Also the larger the sample size the more the money and time needed to carry our the researcher
Sampling design
Refers to the part of the research plan that indicates how cases are to be selected for observation
Sampling frame
This is a complete or reliable list of all elements in a population from which a sample will be selected or drawn. It is a complete list of every unit in the universe or population
Variable
This is a logical grouping of the attributes like sex or gender composed of two attributes ie males and female
Variable are divided into two groups i.e independent and dependent variable
Parameter
This is a summary description of given variables in a population
Characteristics of a good sample
1. It must cover wide geographical area
2. It must have enough number of representatives so as to show clearly what is in population
3. It must have a wide range of types of elements to reduce biases
4. It must be selected by the researcher him/her self as he/she know the kind of respondent she/she need and methods he/she will use to obtain it
Importance of sampling in field research
1. Sample can save time since can produce result from within short and relative time
2. It is cheap in terms of cost I serve budget constrains
3. Sampling provide a greatest scope in terms of variable that may be studied
4. Sampling is scientifically and statistically justifiable
5. Sampling is an alternative way when population under study contain large number of items’ and occupy a vast geographical area
TYPES OF SAMPLING
a) Probability sampling
b) Non- probability sampling
A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
It is a random selection is a sample
This is a sampling method where selection at sample is done randomly by chance .Here each individual in a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
Types of probability sampling
i. Sample random sampling
ii. Systematic random sampling
iii. Stratified sampling
iv. Mulit stage sampling
v. Cluster sampling
i. Sample random sampling
This gives every possible combination element in a population equal chance of being included in the sample.
It is chance sampling technique where each of every items or individual in the population has an equal opportunity in the inclusion the sample
Method of simple random sampling
By lottery method
The table of random number
Computer method : it is similar to table random number but under this number are picked by computer
ii. Systematic sampling
Is the type of probability sampling by selecting of individual or items on a given regular interval. It is very applicable when population sample is large and the target population is evenly distributed
For example
formula of sampling interval K = N/n N- Total number of population
sample size
K- sampling Interval
to obtain the sample using systematic sampling Question.
If the total population is 1000 individual,and the number of people who must be in the sample are 100, what will be sampling interval
Steps
Calculate sampling interval or fraction
K=Fraction(K) or sampling interval N = 1000
n = 100
Picking the starting point by any method of simple random sampling
Picking systematically with the specific interval (k) by adding
(k) to the pick number until the required single is achieve
iii. Stratified sampling
It is a type of probability sampling involving a selection of study sample by dividing the targeted population into the homogeneous sub group(strata) and then simple random sampling in each sub group
E.g suppose the target population consist of 700 male sub population and 300 female sub population
Create male and female sub sample provided that 100 total population sample is required
Step
i). Calculate the total number of the population
Finding the sampling ratio Given by
ratio
Calculate sub sample of male and female by taking sampling ratio multiple by sample population of each
male = 1/10 x 700 = 70 male
Female = 1/10 x 300 = 30 female
Example 2 ,3000 students, 100staff, 50 non teaching staff,
Using stratified sampling technique prepare sample for a particular studying of 10% Steps
Calculate sub samples
i. student 10/100 x 3000=300
– teachers 10/100 x 100=10
Non teacher 10/100 X 50=5
– Therefore 300 + 10 + 5 = 315
ii. the sample of the particular study is 315
Advantages stratified
It is more representative than simple random sampling of the same size drawn from the same population
Conclusion from stratified sample are more general sable than simple random.
Disadvantage
The technique is complex because it need researcher to analyze the population carefully to discover its true composition
Chance that researcher get wrong stratum,subgroup are great
iii. Cluster/area /spatial sampling
Is the type of at probability sampling used when target population is displaced over a wide geographical area. Under this the total area at study is divided.
The total area into a number at smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters Then a number of smaller areas are randomly elected
All units in these small areas are included in the sample
iv. Multi stage sampling
This is further development of the idea cluster sampling .This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country
Under this, the first stage may be to select large primary sample unit such as state, then region then district,then town and finally certain families within towns
i.e the second sample is selected or drawn from the first sample, the third sample from the second sample etc
example: population of 2500 people is spread over Temeke district.
A sample of 600 household need to be selected from this population for study
-Researcher will list down all divisions in Temeke district. Let us say there 10 dimension so in this stage he may take five division( of them)
List down all the wards in those five division let us say there are six (6) wards in each division i.e 6 x5 = 30 wards. in the second stage, sample wards = 10 wards
-List down villages or streets in these 10 wards and the are 10 street or village in each ward. Thus 10 x10 =100 villages in the third stage the villages = 25 sample village
List down house holds of each village and let us say there 100 house hold house holds
In the fourth stage sample the household = 500 households Thus our sample is 500 household
B. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Is the type at sampling which does not give each items or element in target population equal chance to be included in sampling
Types of non-probability sampling
i. Accidental/chunk/convenience sampling
ii. Snow-ball sampling
iii. Purposive/judgmental
iv. Quota sampling
i. Accidental sampling
Under this method, the researcher Collect data from responds for a given research study he/she meets accidentally during the period research
ii. Snow ball sampling
The researcher starts his/her research with small number of respondents who are available and ask them t o call for other who will fit in the study
iii. Purpose/judgment sampling
Is the type of Non- probability sampling where researcher purposeful chooses responder whose in his/her own opinion thought are to be relevant of the study
iv. Quota sampling
In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often expensive that interviewer are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewers judgment
The size of the quota for each stratum is generally, proportionate to the size that stratum in the population
( If that stratum is ¼ of the total population then the researcher take a ¼ of individual in that particular stratum
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A person who does not plan is always planning to fail.So whenever we want to do something we have to plan how to go about it
The word” proposal”originated from the word “propose” which means to put forward, suggest or advice. Proposal therefore refer to suggestion, intention , plan or scheme
A researcher proposal may be defined as a systematic plan, suggestion or request which bring together in organized form the preliminary scheme that will be required to fulfill a particular research project
The research proposal is used to provide to guideline to the research during the research process and also provide a means of evaluating the research study
The research proposal is considered to be a plan since puts forward for consideration one’s scheme of intent
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is used to administrative purpose. It is a basis for written agreement or contract between the researcher and management (sponsor ). A proposal acts as a record for agreement
It helps the researcher to think over important issues about the study. ( about what he/she want to do)
( the what, why, how, where and to whom the research to be conducted are thought out and answered at this stage of developing proposal
Before conducting a research sometimes a researcher need to get go ahead from his client. A client can be from the organization you are working with, sponsor or university. Eg NGO’s Providing funds for research will not sponsor any form of research until they have received and approved a detailed research proposal.
Proposal are used to make a choice among the competing suppliers ( researchers) and to influence positively the decision to fund the proposal study
Format of content of a research proposal It is divided into 3 parts
i. Preliminary pages
ii. The main body of the research proposal
iii. Back page
Preliminary
Title page – title of the study
Research name
Degree requirement
Awarding University or institution
Year of study
Main body
Chapter I : Introduction
Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Objective of the study
Research hypothesis/question
Scope of the study
Significance of the study
Conceptual or theoretical framework
Chapter II : Literature review
This chapter is devoted to a survey of the body of knowledge that already exist and identifying the existing gaps in knowledge which the research intended to fill
It should point out how the problem under investigation is related to the previous research finding
It should put into consideration some theories that are elated to the problem under investigation
Chapter III: Research methodology
It indicate the area of the study
Population
Research design
Sample and sampling technique with will be used
Data collection method or ( strategy )
Data analysis technique
Budget, time frame e.t.c
Back pages References
This is the list of all sources that were consulted in writing the proposal. (they are not numbered, are written in alphabetical order using surname)
Qualities of an effective research proposal
i. It should clearly state:
ii. What is being proposal or what the project is about
iii. How it will be carried out
iv. When it will be carried out
v. How much it will cost
Research methodology
Refer to the study of how research is to be conducted involving the development and analysis of the theories, principles, approaches and view to be employed in a particular research
It concerned with the rational and the philosophical assumption that underlie a given study
It cover study area, study population, sampling design as well as data gathering and analysis
It involving the principle or rules underlying series of process, admit and task to be performed in a given research study
RESEARCH DESIGN
It is conceptual structure within which research is conducted or a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study
It is the plan structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answer to research question. Research design specific the objectives’ of the study, methodology and techniques to be applied for achieving the specified research objective
In a nut shell the design of research provided a systematic plan of the procedures for the researcher to follow
It is blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
Features of good Research design
i. Flexible
ii. Appropriate
iii. Efficient
iv. Economical
v. Accurate (give minimum experimental error)
vi. Yielding maximal information
Types of research design
i. Case study research design :-
Case study is an in-depth comprehensive study at a social or natural phenomena in any branch of knowledge
Case study aims at studying everything about something rather than something about everything
It purpose is to understand the interaction between factors that explain the present status or the development of the study unit over a period of time
It involves the study of a single study unit like a family, a community, a group, a class and a specific geographical area
The case study design can be classified as an intensive investigation of a single unit or group
Advantage of a case study design
i. It is flexible with respect to data collection method
ii. It provide an opportunity for the intensive analysis of many specific details that are overlooked in other methods or designs
iii. Case study an extend virtually to any dimension of the topic to be studied
iv. Case study may be conducted practically to any kind of social and natural settings
v. It gives to the researcher a wide range of insights into human life
vi. It is useful for testing the hypothesis about the structural and procedural characterizes of a specific social on geographical unit
Disadvantage of case study design
i. It is not suitable in generation at facts and findings ( limited generalization ability) this is because studies are studies of stray cases which are not sufficient enough for making meaningful generalization of larger studies
ii. Time consuming
iii. It is inadequate for an analysis of a macro problems.
iv. There is a danger of researcher’s over- confident
Survey research design
It is a broad based investigation of a phenomena through administration of data collection instrument to a target population or a sample of respondents selected from the target population
It is extensive investigation of a particular research problem covering a large number of study units
It is useful for testing hypotheses about large social or geographical aggregates and allows generalization of a study finding if based on a representative sample, the survey of research design if appropriate for making descriptive studying of large population.
Only two methods of data collection can be used. The methods are interview and questions
Experimental research design
It is a type of research design involving random classification at the respondents or items understudying into experimental group and control group and then conducting an experiment through exposing the experimental group to unusual conditions
These bases on experimental groups of people or items. Two similar groups are used where one becomes experimental and another control group to see if the deference is worth while
After the experimental group being given special treatment the researcher is to observe any change that might be taking place to the experimental group or making comparison between the control and experimental so long as the two groups were assumed to be initially equivalent
It consist of
i. Experimental group:
It is the one exposed to some novel Or special condition
ii. Control group:
it is the one exposed to normal existing condition
iii. Treatment:
It is an object or specific condition subjected to the experimental group to as to see whether an induce or influence some changes to this experimental group
Descriptive research design
It is a research design used to describe the state of affairs as if exists involving the fact finding and about people’s attitude, opinion, habits or any variety at natural or social issue under studying
(state of affair – situational condition)
Historical research design
It is a research design concerned with the study of past records and other information sources with a view of reconstructing the origin and development of an institution, phenomena or movement or system and discovering the trend in the past
It is descriptive in nature describing fact on the past situation
This design depends upon inference and logical analysis of recorded data and indirect evidence rather than upon direct observation
Correlation research design (causal comparative)
This is the research design which enables the researcher to assess the degree of relationship that exists between two or more variable
It analyses the correlation between two or more variable under study eg compare the geography find exams results of a group of students who frequently attended geography periods and those who rarely attended geography period
Cross- cultural research design
This is a research design used to compare the behavior patterns of different culture. Using this design a researcher can perceive how various cultures experience given economical, political, educational and social outcomes.
E.g.:- you can compare urban and rural secondary school students level of computer literacy
FORMAT OF RESEARCH REPORT
This is the last stage in conducting a field research whereby the finding, obtained in the research are documented or published and being handed over to the appropriate authority for action to be taken or kept for other to see it,
It has 3 parts
Preliminaries
Main body
Reference
Preliminary
Cover page
Fill the page
Certification/declaration
Copyright
Acknowledgement
Dedication
Abstract
Table of contents
List of tables and figures
Abbreviation and acronym
Main body Chapter1: Introduction
Background of the problem
Statement of the problem
Purpose of research study
Objective of research study
Research question /hypothesis
Significance of the study
Limitation or scope office study
Conceptual framework
Chapter 2: literature review Relevant sub heading
Chapter 3; Research methodology
Study area
Targeted population
Sample size
Sampling strategic
Research design
Data collection methods
Data analysis plan
Chapter 4: Research findings, presentation and discussion
Chapter 5: summary , conclusion and recommendation
Summary of the study
Conclusion
Recommendation
Back page
Reference
Appendix
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